FUNGI Whittaker
(true fungi)

Interactions where FUNGI is the controlling partner and gains from the process

The following relationships have been collated from the published literature (see 'References').

Stage Summary Taxon Vernacular Classification References Darwin Classification of Active Taxon Active Taxon Active Vernacular Active Taxon Uncertain Active State Active Part Active Stage Relationship Relationship Uncertain Relationship Geography Darwin Classification of Passive Taxon Passive Taxon Passive Vernacular Passive Taxon Uncertain Passive State Passive Part Passive Stage Passive Taxon's significance to Active Taxon Indoors etc Season
(live) live mycelium is mycorrhizal with live root Goodyera repens Creeping Lady’s-tresses Asparagales: Orchidaceae Orchids of Britain & Ireland: a field and site guide, Harrap, A. & S., 2009
/Fungi/Fungitrue fungilivemycelium Foodplant / mycorrhiza /Plantae/Tracheophyta/Magnoliopsida/Asparagales/Orchidaceae/Goodyera repens/Goodyera repenscreeping lady's-tressesliveroot
(live) live mycelium is mycorrhizal with live root Hammarbya paludosa Bog Orchid Asparagales: Orchidaceae Orchids of Britain & Ireland: a field and site guide, Harrap, A. & S., 2009
/Fungi/Fungitrue fungilivemycelium Foodplant / mycorrhiza /Plantae/Tracheophyta/Magnoliopsida/Asparagales/Orchidaceae/Hammarbya paludosa/Hammarbya paludosabog orchidliveroot
(live) live mycelium is mycorrhizal with live root Liparis loeselii Fen Orchid Asparagales: Orchidaceae Orchids of Britain & Ireland: a field and site guide, Harrap, A. & S., 2009
/Fungi/Fungitrue fungilivemycelium Foodplant / mycorrhiza /Plantae/Tracheophyta/Magnoliopsida/Asparagales/Orchidaceae/Liparis loeselii/Liparis loeseliifen orchidliveroot

Interactions where FUNGI is the victim or passive partner (and generally loses out from the process)

The following relationships have been collated from the published literature (see 'References').

Filters:

Affected Part Summary Taxon Vernacular Classification References Darwin Classification of Active Taxon Active Taxon Active Vernacular Active Taxon Uncertain Active State Active Part Active Stage Relationship Relationship Uncertain Relationship Geography Darwin Classification of Passive Taxon Passive Taxon Passive Vernacular Passive Taxon Uncertain Passive State Passive Part Passive Stage Passive Taxon's significance to Active Taxon Indoors etc Season Summary
mycelium is food source of nymph Aneurus avenius a flat bark bug Hemiptera: Aradidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Aradidae/Aneurus (Aneurodes) avenius/Aneurus (Aneurodes) aveniusa flat bark bugnymph Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungimycelium nymph feeds on mycelium
mycelium is food source of nymph Aneurus laevis a flat bark bug Hemiptera: Aradidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Aradidae/Aneurus (Aneurus) laevis/Aneurus (Aneurus) laevisa flat bark bugnymph Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungimycelium nymph feeds on mycelium
mycelium is food source of adult Aneurus laevis a flat bark bug Hemiptera: Aradidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Aradidae/Aneurus (Aneurus) laevis/Aneurus (Aneurus) laevisa flat bark bugadult Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungimycelium adult feeds on mycelium
mycelium is food source of nymph Questionable Aradus corticalis a flat bark bug Hemiptera: Aradidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Aradidae/Aradus corticalis/Aradus corticalisa flat bark bugnymph Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungi?mycelium nymph feeds on mycelium
fruitbody is food source of Aradus depressus a flat bark bug Hemiptera: Aradidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Aradidae/Aradus depressus/Aradus depressusa flat bark bug Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungifruitbody feeds on fruitbody
mycelium is food source of Aradus depressus a flat bark bug Hemiptera: Aradidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Aradidae/Aradus depressus/Aradus depressusa flat bark bug Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungimycelium feeds on mycelium
fruitbody (small) is food source of adult Scolopostethus pictus a ground bug Hemiptera: Lygaeidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Lygaeidae/Scolopostethus pictus/Scolopostethus pictusa ground bugadult Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungifruitbody (small) adult feeds on fruitbody (small)
fruitbody (small) is food source of nymph Scolopostethus pictus a ground bug Hemiptera: Lygaeidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Lygaeidae/Scolopostethus pictus/Scolopostethus pictusa ground bugnymph Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungifruitbody (small) nymph feeds on fruitbody (small)
is food source of female macropter Hoplothrips corticis a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Hoplothrips corticis/Hoplothrips corticisa thripsfemale macropter Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungi (3,5-9,12)female macropter feeds on
is food source of female micropter Hoplothrips corticis a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Hoplothrips corticis/Hoplothrips corticisa thripsfemale micropter Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungi (2-10)female micropter feeds on
is food source of male micropter Hoplothrips corticis a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Hoplothrips corticis/Hoplothrips corticisa thripsmale micropter Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungi (2-10)male micropter feeds on
is food source of larva Hoplothrips corticis a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Hoplothrips corticis/Hoplothrips corticisa thripslarva Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungi (3-10)larva feeds on
is parasitised by clustered apothecium Unguiculariopsis ilicincola a discomycete Helotiales: Helotiaceae Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook, Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
/Fungi/Ascomycota/Leotiomycetes/Helotiales/Helotiaceae/Unguiculariopsis ilicincola/Unguiculariopsis ilicincolaa discomyceteclusteredapothecium Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungi clustered apothecium parasitises
is parasitised by scattered, mostly superficial perithecium Minor Syspastospora parasitica a pyrenomycete Hypocreales: Hypocreaceae Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook, Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
/Fungi/Ascomycota/Sordariomycetes/Hypocreales/Hypocreaceae/Syspastospora parasitica/Syspastospora parasiticaa pyrenomycetescattered, mostly superficialperithecium Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungiMinor scattered, mostly superficial perithecium parasitises
mycelium is parasitised by sporangiophore Mortierella bainieri a pin mould Mortierellales: Mortierellaceae Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook, Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
/Fungi/Zygomycota/Zygomycetes/Mortierellales/Mortierellaceae/Mortierella bainieri/Mortierella bainieria pin mouldsporangiophore Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungimycelium sporangiophore parasitises mycelium
(small) small fruitbody is food source of larva Aphodius plagiatus a dung beetle Coleoptera: Aphodiidae Dung Beetles and Chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea), Jessop, L., 1986
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Coleoptera/Aphodiidae/Aphodius (Liothorax) plagiatus/Aphodius (Liothorax) plagiatusa dung beetlelarva Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungismallfruitbody larva feeds on small fruitbody
(subterranean) subterranean fruitbody may contain larva Restricted Odonteus armiger a dumbledor Coleoptera: Bolboceratidae Dung Beetles and Chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea), Jessop, L., 1986
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Coleoptera/Bolboceratidae/Odonteus armiger/Odonteus armigera dumbledorlarva Fungus / internal feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungisubterraneanfruitbodySole larva feeds within subterranean fruitbody
fruitbody fruitbody is parasitised by colony of Calcarisporium anamorph Calcarisporium arbuscula an anamorphic fungus Hypocreales Microfungi on Land Plants: An Identification Handbook, Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1997
/Fungi/Ascomycota/Sordariomycetes/Hypocreales/Calcarisporium arbuscula/Calcarisporium arbusculaan anamorphic funguscolonyCalcarisporium anamorph Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungifruitbody colony of Calcarisporium anamorph parasitises fruitbody
hypha (live, shrivelled) live, shrivelled hypha is parasitised by hyphal coil of Arthrobotrys anamorph Arthrobotrys oligospora a nematode-trapping anamorphic fungus Orbiliales: Orbiliaceae Morphogenesis in the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora – an extensive plasticity of infection structures, Nordbring-Hertz, B., 2004
/Fungi/Ascomycota/Orbiliomycetes/Orbiliales/Orbiliaceae/Arthrobotrys oligospora/Arthrobotrys oligosporaa nematode-trapping anamorphic fungushyphal coilArthrobotrys anamorph Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungilive, shrivelledhypha hyphal coil of Arthrobotrys anamorph parasitises live, shrivelled hypha
hyphae hyphae is food source of adult Drymus brunneus a ground bug Hemiptera: Lygaeidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Lygaeidae/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) brunneus/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) brunneusa ground bugadult Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungihyphae adult feeds on hyphae
hyphae hyphae is food source of nymph Drymus brunneus a ground bug Hemiptera: Lygaeidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Lygaeidae/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) brunneus/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) brunneusa ground bugnymph Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungihyphae nymph feeds on hyphae
hyphae hyphae is food source of nymph Drymus sylvaticus a ground bug Hemiptera: Lygaeidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Lygaeidae/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) sylvaticus/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) sylvaticusa ground bugnymph Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungihyphae nymph feeds on hyphae
hyphae hyphae is food source of adult Drymus sylvaticus a ground bug Hemiptera: Lygaeidae Land and Water Bugs of the British Isles, Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Hemiptera/Lygaeidae/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) sylvaticus/Drymus (Sylvadrymus) sylvaticusa ground bugadult Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungihyphae adult feeds on hyphae
mycelium mycelium is parasitised by sporangiophore Piptocephalis freseniana a pin mould Zoopagales: Piptocephalidaceae Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook, Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998
/Fungi/Zygomycota/Zygomycetes/Zoopagales/Piptocephalidaceae/Piptocephalis freseniana/Piptocephalis fresenianaa pin mouldsporangiophore Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungimycelium sporangiophore parasitises mycelium
sclerotium sclerotium is parasitised by fruitbody Tetragoniomyces uliginosus a jelly fungus Tremellales: Tetragoniomycetaceae Checklist of the British and Irish Basidiomycota, Legon, N.W. & Henrici, A. with Roberts, P.J., Spooner, B.M. & Watling, R., 2005
/Fungi/Basidiomycota/Tremellomycetes/Tremellales/Tetragoniomycetaceae/Tetragoniomyces uliginosus/Tetragoniomyces uliginosusa jelly fungusfruitbody Fungus / parasite /Fungi/Fungitrue fungisclerotium fruitbody parasitises sclerotium
spore spore is food source of female Megalothrips bonannii a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Megalothrips bonannii/Megalothrips bonanniia thripsfemale Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungispore (8-10)female feeds on spore
spore spore is food source of male Megalothrips bonannii a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Megalothrips bonannii/Megalothrips bonanniia thripsmale Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungispore (10)male feeds on spore
spore spore is food source of larva Megalothrips bonannii a thrips Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae Thysanoptera, Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976
/Animalia/Arthropoda/Insecta/Thysanoptera/Phlaeothripidae/Megalothrips bonannii/Megalothrips bonanniia thripslarva Fungus / feeder /Fungi/Fungitrue fungispore (10)larva feeds on spore

Author & YearTitleSource
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1997Microfungi on Land Plants: An Identification Handbook2nd (New Enlarged) edition, 868pp, The Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd
Ellis, M.B. & J.P., 1998Microfungi on Miscellaneous Substrates: An Identification Handbook2nd (New Enlarged) edition, 246pp, The Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd
Harrap, A. & S., 2009Orchids of Britain & Ireland: a field and site guide2nd edition, 480pp, A&C Black Publishers Ltd
Jessop, L., 1986Dung Beetles and Chafers (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea)Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects, Vol 5, Part 11, New edition, 53pp, The Royal Entomological Society of London
Legon, N.W. & Henrici, A. with Roberts, P.J., Spooner, B.M. & Watling, R., 2005Checklist of the British and Irish Basidiomycota517pp, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Mound L.A., Morison, G.D., Pitkin, B.R. & Palmer, J.M., 1976ThysanopteraHandbooks for the Identification of British Insects, Vol 1, part 11, 79pp, The Royal Entomological Society of London
Nordbring-Hertz, B., 2004Morphogenesis in the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora – an extensive plasticity of infection structuresMycologist Vol 18 (3): 125-133.
Southwood, T.R.E. & Leston, D., 1959Land and Water Bugs of the British IslesWayside & Woodland Series, 1959 edition, 436pp, Frederick Warne & Co. Ltd.
Subtaxon Rank Featured
subtaxa
No of
interactions
No of
references
Anamorphic Species 2 trophisms 2 references
Anamorphic Species 1 references
Phylum 5,581 subtaxa 19,501 trophisms 2,391 references
Phylum 3,870 subtaxa 16,130 trophisms 3,843 references
Phylum 166 subtaxa 381 trophisms 81 references
Phylum 1 subtaxa 1 trophisms 2 references
Class 1 subtaxa 1 trophisms
Order 1 subtaxa 1 trophisms
Phylum 3 subtaxa 4 trophisms 3 references
Class 3 subtaxa 4 trophisms 3 references
Order 3 subtaxa 4 trophisms 3 references
Genus 2 subtaxa 10 trophisms
Form genus 1 subtaxa 1 trophisms
Phylum 129 subtaxa 251 trophisms 109 references
Informal 17 subtaxa 18 trophisms 3 references
Informal 1,958 subtaxa 5,254 trophisms 475 references
Informal 1,055 subtaxa 2,653 trophisms 998 references
Informal 180 subtaxa 370 trophisms 236 references
Informal 741 subtaxa 1,596 trophisms 216 references
Informal 3,126 subtaxa 9,223 trophisms 3,086 references
Informal 14,638 subtaxa 53,809 trophisms 6,287 references
Taxonomic hierarchy:
KingdomFUNGI (true fungi)
DomainEukaryota (eukaryotes)
LifeBIOTA (living things)
NBNNBN (data.nbn.org.uk) has a distribution map for FUNGI (true fungi)

Identification Works

AuthorYearTitleSource
Anon. Svampe www.svampe.net/
Anon. Index of fungi pages or photographs on The Net www.grzyby.pl/fglobal-directory.htm
Anon. Norwegian fungus of the month www.uio.no/conferences/imc7/
Aranzadi Society of Sciences Mikologia www.aranzadi.eus/micologia/a?lang=eu
in the hand Buczacki, S. 1989 Fungi of Britain and Europe Collins New Generation Guides, 320pp, Collins
Dickinson, C. & Lucas, J. 1979 The Encyclopedia of Mushrooms 280pp, Orbis
Larsen, F.V. Fungi Images on the Net www.in2.dk/fungi/imageintroTxt.htm
in the hand () Massee, G. 1911 British Fungi with a chapter on Lichens (British Fungi and Lichens) 551pp, Routledge
Ryman, S., Holmasen, I. 1984 Svampar - en falthandbok 718pp, Interpublishing, Stockholm
Snowarski, M. Fungi of Poland www.grzyby.pl
Stridvall, L. & A. Leif & Anita Stridvall's Botanical Site www.stridvall.se/la/index.php
Wuilbaut, J.J. Cercle de Mycologie de Mons (Belgique): (Page perso de JJ. Wuilbaut) users.skynet.be/jjw.myco.mons
  • Dung Fungi

  • () Doveri, F. 2007 Fungi Fimicoli Italici: a guide to the recognition of basidiomycetes and ascomycetes living on faecal material corrected reprint edition, 1104pp, A.M.B. Fondazione Centro Studi Micologici
  • Ecology/Entomogenous Fungi

  • Leatherdale, D. 1970 The arthropod hosts of entomogenous fungi in Britain Entomophaga Vol 15: 419-435.
    Leatherdale, D. 1966 Host Catalogue of British Entomogenous Fungi: second supplement EMM Vol 101: 163-164.
    Leatherdale, D. 1962 Host Catalogue of British Entomogenous Fungi: first supplement EMM Vol 97: 226-227.
    Leatherdale, D. 1958 Host Catalogue of British Entomogenous Fungi EMM Vol 94: 103-105.
  • Ecology/Fairy Rings

  • Rutter, G. 2002 Fairy Rings Field Mycology Vol 3 (2): 56-60.
  • Hypogeous Fungi

  • Montecchi A. & Sarasini, M. 2000 Funghi Ipogei D'Europa 714pp, A.M.B. Fondazione Centro Studi Micologici
  • Lichenicolous Fungi

  • Hawksworth, D.L. 1983 A Key to the Lichen-forming, Parasitic, Parasymbiotic and Saprophytic Fungi occurring on Lichens in the British Isles 44pp, The British Lichen Society
  • Myxomyceticolous Fongi

  • Ing, B. 1976 More on Mouldy Myxomycetes Bull. Br. mycol. Soc. Vol 10 (1): 30.
  • Myxomyceticolous Fungi

  • Ing, B. 1974 Mouldy Myxomyxcetes Bull. Br. mycol. Soc. Vol 8 (1): 25-30.
    Rogerson, C.T. & Stephenson, S.L. 1993 Myxomyceticolous Fungi Mycologia: 456-469.
  • Pathology

  • () Redfern, M. & Shirley, P. 2002 British Plant Galls - Identification of galls on plants and fungi AIDGAP Keys, 325pp, Field Studies Council
  • Plant Galls

  • in the hand () Darlington, A. 1968 A Pocket Encyclopedia of Plant Galls in colour Blandford Press
    () Redfern, M. & Shirley, P. 2002 British Plant Galls - Identification of galls on plants and fungi AIDGAP Keys, 325pp, Field Studies Council
    () Redfern, M. & Shirley, P. 2011 British Plant Galls AIDGAP Keys, Second edition, 432pp, Field Studies Council
    in the hand () Stubbs, F.B. (Editor) 1986 Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls 95pp, British Plant Gall Society (BPGS)
  • Plant Pathology

  • Anon. HYP3: Species - Crop diseases www.inra.fr/internet/Produits/HYP3/species.htm
    Hagedorn, G. Phytopathology.net www.phytopathology.net

    FUNGI (true fungi) may also be included in identification literature listed under the following higher taxa:

    General Literature

    Literature listed under the following higher taxa may also be relevant to FUNGI (true fungi):

    The Fungi are a large group of organisms which are ubiquitous in terrestrial habitats. They are less abundant in freshwater habitats and comparatively rare in in the sea. Fungi are characterised by a filamentous growth form (mycelium), reproduction by haploid spores, and a sexual cycle which involves delayed nuclear fusion (dikaryon). A few groups form large sporulating colonies (mushrooms, toadstools, brackets etc).

    Although usually thought of as decomposers, many have other lifestyles. Some are parasitic; a small number of these are of medical importance, but most are plant parasites and a few are economically very significant.

    Other fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots (mycorrhiza). The fungus mycelium is able to permeate the soil further afield than the plant’s root hairs and so can harvest minerals from a larger soil volume. These are made available to the plant while sugars from photosynthesis leak from the roots to the fungus. Many of the most striking autumn toadstools (Amanita, Cortinarius, Tricholoma, Boletus sl.) are mycorrhizal with forest trees (esp Oak, Beech, Hazel, Willow, Birch and Pine). Most other plants and trees are mycorrhizal with lower fungi like the Pea Truffles (Endogone). The exception is the Cabbage family, Brassicaceae, which is not known to form mycorrhizal associations and is rarely affected by Rust Fungi (the exception to the exception is Scurvy Grass - Cochlearia spp.) - this is probably due to the mustard oils which give them their distinctive flavour and smell.

    Mycorrhizal fungi can be parasitised by higher plants, maybe with another fungus as intermediary. The plants formerly called "Saprophytes" fall into this category: there is insufficient nitrogen or useable carbohydrate in leaf litter to support a flowering plant.

    Lichens are another example of fungi forming symbioses with photosynthetic organisms, in this case: algae or cyanobacteria. The combined organism is able to live in much harsher environments than either could alone. Some lichens grow just inside rocks (endolithic) where they wait for erosion processes to release their spores.

    Prof D.L. Hawksworth has estimated that there are 6 species of fungus for every species of flowering plant, suggesting there are 1.5 million species of fungi on Earth. Less than 20% of these are known to science, although in Europe, which has been well-studied, the percentage is far greater.

    Fungal specimens are best preserved by drying.

    Infected plant material can be lightly pressed, although if there is superficial growth, this will be damaged and may be lost. Most people use gentle warmth for everything from leaf-spots to fleshy toadstools.

    This can be as simple as the top of a radiator, although purpose-built driers such as those sold for drying fruit give the best results. Large fleshy species can be placed in the air stream from a fan heater for fast, effective results even with fragile species like inkcaps.

    Infected leaves can be placed in folded blotting paper, lightly weighted on top to prevent them curling up too much.

    The time taken to dry varies with the method, but can be from a few hours for infected leaves, overnight for small to medium toadstools, or longer for large toadstools or brackets. Large toadstools can become sealed by a dry layer on the outside, but leaving them at room temperature for a day allows the remaining moisture to soften this skin so drying can be resumed.

    Leaves will curl and go crisp otherwise weight is the easiest way to tell when a specimen is dry. At this point it’s best to leave them at room temperature for a day to soften up, otherwise they can be very fragile.

    Dried material keeps reasonably well but is attacked by a variety of pests, especially booklice and mites, and to a lesser extent museum/carpet beetles. Dried material is conventionally stored in paper envelopes, but this gives no protection from insects, so the envelopes need to be stored in batches in sealable plastic bags or boxes. Avoid storing the specimens directly in individual plastic bags as static electricity from handling the bags will make extracting the dried material all but impossible.

    Except for some of the more distinctive larger species, microscopic examination is always required to identify fungi. Staining is often necessary to make hyaline tissues and spores visible - the question is what stain to use? As a rule of thumb: if it has basidia, use Phloxine; if it has asci, use Melzer’s Iodine; other hyaline ascomycete structures can be stained with Congo Red. Anamorphic fungi generally stain well in Cotton Blue, although dematiaceous hyphomycetes generally need no staining.

    True fungi, including mushrooms, toadstools, cup fungi, moulds and lichens, but excluding those groups which used to be regarded as fungi until modern research showed them to be closer to algae (oomycetes) or protozoa (slime moulds).

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